Student Writing Samples

Berardi, Holly. A Deeper Look Into Negative Campaigning. Sociology
Browne, Jaime. The Five Sexes and the Five Sexes Revisited. SO108
Cabrejas, Jessica . No Title. PY206
Wali, Aminah. Child Development: A Service Learning Experience. PY102

Berardi, Holly. A Deeper Look Into Negative Campaigning. Sociology (top)
Politicians need to be seen, to be recognized. They want to meet the American people in their living room through the portal of their TV screens to show that they are the best candidates to lead the country into the future. They want to break down the complicated issues of politics and public policy and utilize political campaign ads that bring in visual imagery and appeal to emotion to win the largest and most captivated audience. Politicians believe that campaign ads are valuable because they invest millions of dollars into them. The makers of today’s television advertisements want them to remain valuable so they have studied sociology, human biology, and psychological theories. They know that instead of selling a specific item, their job is to sell an idea. Those ideas persuade people, sometimes without them realizing it, to do such things as to buy a certain shampoo or whom to vote for as president. These ads use visual and auditory symbols, biological triggers and even trance inducing techniques to cause their veiled messages to influence an audience’s emotions, memories and perspectives in order to shape the decisions people make. Being aware of the methods used by the ads helps the audience better discern the intended message and there by, perhaps, not allow them to be manipulated.
Jay Leno recently did a skit that illustrated that it is not always what is said, but how it is said that matters. He took the beginning and end of a typical TV campaign ad featuring John McCain, but in the middle where the content of the ad would reside, he replaced it with the statement, “John McCain likes to deep fry turkeys in peanut oil.” In the first example he uses colorful pictures of McCain, light-hearted music and a cheerful voice-over. It ends with “I’m John McCain and I approve this message.” In the second example he uses the same images and words, but this time with black and white pictures, ominous music and a low voice. It even has the oil turn red as if the turkey is being dropped into a vat of blood. This one ends with “I’m Barack Obama and I approve this message.” This skit makes it clear that there is more to political ads than the obvious message conveyed by the words. There are certain visual and auditory triggers that can be used to initiate an anticipated or desired response and the average American is receptive to the unspoken language of the ads.
Sociologists that focus on Symbolic Interactionism believe symbols are the foundation of language and that language is the building block, not only of communication, but of an individual’s thoughts as well. Language can include both verbal and nonverbal means of conveying messages. Nonverbal communication includes the use of gestures, eye contact, posture and tone of voice as well as symbols. Symbols are social objects that can represent anything that groups of people agree they should represent (Rohall, Milkie, Lucas 31). If advertisers have the ability to create symbols then this can explain why large groups of individuals within a society recognize the same images to mean the same thing. People are inundated with these images day in and day out, not only on TV, but also in every walk of life. Sut Jhally, PhD and author of The Codes of Advertising makes the claim that:
The power of advertising doesn’t come from the fact that it manipulates us, the power of advertising is based on the monopoly of the cultural space within which we think about ourselves, within which we figure out how society works. That is in some sense ultimate power.

Advertisements have found a way to permeate every aspect of a person’s life, from the labels on their clothes to the mouthwash they use in the morning. From the bulletin boards and store signs along the road, to the stadiums they visit to watch the game. It is hard to rest ones eyes anywhere and not see some form of advertisement. But TV advertisement has the additional feature of acting out scenarios of life as if they are the standards of normalcy. As a person buys into this image of life then they begin to look at their own in comparison causing them to change their perception of what defines normal. This can influence their purchases so they can conform to the standard or else feel a sense of anomie. This can be true of political ads. If a person is made to feel that they are the only one against a certain candidate, they are more likely to reconsider their own views.
One of the ads used by Barack Obama during his recent 2008 campaign called “Low Road” uses many of the techniques that are most commonly found in the standard negative ad. This style is widely used because it incorporates symbols that effectively convey a clear message to a wide audience. Obama’s ad begins the use of symbols with a black-and-white image of McCain as the narrator says, in a low, accusatory voice, “He’s practicing the politics of the past.” This split second moment already achieves two things. In this modern day color images are preferred to black and white, which are gray and muted, so the translation is that McCain lacks life and vitality; this, along with the verbal message about the past, brings up impressions of McCain being old-fashioned and outdated. Next, a series of uncomplimentary quotes flash right over his face and bring to mind the mental image of a reject stamp seen in many movies and commercials over the years. The scene changes to another gray picture of McCain, this one where he is happily standing next to George W. Bush along with the words “Same old politics. Same failed policies.” Once again this serves as a repetition of the message already conveyed, that of McCain being old and archaic. Then it goes a step further by adding the repeated use of the word “same.” This use of repetition is very effective because “the more you hear something – even the same things from the same person- the more you believe it” (Clark 84). Having the previous and unpopular president in the picture links him to the unpopular policies of the last administration. Another technique used is when the words that dissolve on and off the screen are written in a large font with all capital letters. An audience familiar with e-mail etiquette would recognize this as a visual representation of an angry or loud voice and that it is considered rude.
Next, a silent white light flashes across the screen and the underlying music changes from eerie and somber to a happy, patriotic sound just as Barack Obama’s face, in soft, warm browns, comes onto the screen. Use of color affects emotions and meanings. The American Psychological Association published findings that said, “Psychologists have documented that ‘living color’ does more than appeal to the senses. It also boosts memory” (Morton). The soft, warm browns of the image have a calming effect much like the color blue used to highlight the words “Barack Obama supports a $1000 middle class tax cut” in the lower screen. Dark blue in particular is seen as dignified and authoritative and the fact that it is used as a border to the upper and lowercase letters is seen as professional and non-threatening. These words don’t interfere with the moving color images of Obama, instead they frame them with clean lines. The words stretch and grow at the pace of the music, drawing the viewer’s eye to them. This drives the message deeper into the viewers mind and memory.
Music taps into memory and emotions as well. “Music is used often in advertising to enrich the key message and may be the single most stimulation component in a commercial” (Hecker, 1984). Multiple studies have shown that there is a strong correlation between well-linked music and visual images to memory recall. Many people will attest to the fact that listening to an old song on the radio can bring to mind something they haven’t thought of in years. More often than not, this memory has an emotional component that is associated with the music as well. During the course of this political advertisement the shift in music plays a key role in setting the tone for its ultimate message. As stated above, the music starts out eerie and somber, a simple piano piece consisting of the repetition of three main notes, similar to what one might expect to find on the X-files TV series. The music then changes to a symphony playing a light, happy, patriotic song, which increasingly goes up in pitch to raise its emotional impact. All of this occurs just as the shift is made from grayed out images of McCain to soft warm color images of Obama. The emotional associations trying to be conveyed are clear, as is the symbolism behind the emotions. If the audience associates the tension of the first piece of music with McCain and the second lighthearted music with Obama, then auditory symbols have been created which can impact a person’s view of each candidate.
The ad goes on to detail specific plans of Obama’s campaign and then ends with Barack walking happily with a factory worker as the words “That’s change we can believe in” are spoken by the narrator in a happy, lighthearted voice. Obama walking with the hardhat wearing worker, shows that he is in touch with the average working-class American. The word “change” implies promises for a better future and has been repeated so often in Obama’s campaign that it has become a symbol in and of itself. But “it is not enough simply to identify and give meaning to (symbols), we must also process that information in the context of other meanings”(Rohall, Milkie, Lucas 32). If a person was already sympathetic to Obama’s campaign promises then this ad becomes increasingly effective because it feeds into the biases and perceptions of that audience. If a person is undecided then it could persuade them, by changing previously neutral emotions. This helps the campaign because of a second theory of Symbolic Interactionists, which is that people put their perceptions into action. The viewer can use the input they received from the ad as a guide for their future behavior, more specifically the manner in which they will vote. The information received through the interpretations of symbols “tells us how to think, feel or act” ((Rohall, Milkie, Lucas 33). This is the basis for the Thomas theorem which basically means that a person’s perception of reality can manipulate their actions, “as long as we think that our understanding is real, we will act on it.” This can result in a vote for Obama.
The concept of using sensory input to change a person’s emotions, and thus actions, is not new. When we look at the influence that TV ads have on the human brain we discover some interesting facts. The biological viewpoint often refers to synapses and neurological functions and when ads attempt to alter our emotions, especially when they use fear tactics to attempt to direct people towards or away from certain actions, then they are tapping into the most primitive parts of the human brain. The ad put out by George W. Bush during the 2004 presidential elections called “Wolves” attempts to do just this. It strikes the audience immediately with an ominous sound that might come out of a horror movie or slasher film just as an image of a misty forest flashes quickly onto the screen. Over a low musical score that is once again reminiscent of the X files theme song, a narrator with a voice full of concern says, “In an increasingly dangerous world, even after the first terrorist attack on America…” The camera angle brings the viewer into the forest moving through the actual underbrush as if in the position of a stalker. Images of wolves hiding in the brush ready to pounce flash quickly on the screen. The narrator pauses only briefly and then says, “John Kerry and the liberals in Congress voted to slash America’s intelligence operations by six billion dollars.” The camera zooms out to the misty treetops and the low breathy voice of the female narrator, almost seductive and definitely threatening continues with “cuts so deep it would have weakened America’s defenses.” The video image changes to a pack of wolves lying in wait in a clearing as the narrator continues, “And weakness attracts those that are waiting…” the wolves get up and start running toward the viewer, “to do America harm” (Stanford U.).
This ad is effective because it keeps the message very “simple and specific, with a vivid detail that sticks in the mind” (Clark 85) and its main purpose is to appeal to a human’s instincts for survival and the fight or flight mentality. Ads like these reach us at our very core because “all the information we gather about the world comes in through our sensory reptilian and limbic brains” which reside in the “irrational and nonspeaking right hemisphere.” This means, “we feel before we even have a chance to think” (Hartmann 58-60). It may sound obvious to say that feelings are the result of emotions, but it may be less known that emotions are a physical biological response, one that humans share with, not just other mammals, but with birds and reptiles as well. That helps to explain why emotions cause an involuntary response from the sympathetic nervous system, such as a rapid heart rate and a tensing of the muscles. Emotions are vital to survival; they help a person to create “a rapid, automatic summary that initiates appropriate actions” (Eagleman 58).
Tapping into our emotions is one way to drive an ads message deeper into our memory. David Eagleman, author of the article “10 unsolved mysteries of the Brain” states “when you learn a new fact… there are physical changes in the structure of your brain” (Eagleman 56). Memory is dependent on the neurons and syntax changes that strengthen the connections between brain cells and is stored in many different regions of the brain. A scientist, James Brewer used fMRI’s to try to find out which parts of the brain were “responsible for encoding memories of pictures. They showed 96 pictures of indoor and outdoor scenes to participants while scanning their brains.” Later they were examined for their recall ability. It was found that the right prefrontal cortex and the parahipplocampal cortex are the areas most responsible for storing images, whereas emotional memories’ storage is largely the result of the amygdala stimulating the hippocampus and cerebral cortex (Huffman pg 269). As ads use different methods to tap into different areas of the brain, they inject their messages that much deeper.
These methods also provide connections between the visual images and the emotions. These connections create associations because memory “encodes the relationships between things more than the detail of the things themselves” (Eagleman 56). The images in this ad are supposed to be representing the potential dangers of terrorists but actually the ads intent is to link Kerry to the enemy. People’s minds are seeing and hearing John Kerry’s name at the same time as they are feeling fear and anxiety at the visual images of the wolves. Because brains tend to categorize memories by emotion then people who see this ad will always, in their gut, equate a vote for Kerry with a lack of safety for themselves, their country, and their families. These voters may not even know why. What they don’t realize is that they are responding to the simultaneous stimuli of fearful sounds, visual images and words such as “slash,” “cut,” “weakness” and “harm.” By creating these associations the ads have managed to alter one’s perceptions. The viewer is left with the image of a pack of wolves running towards them, and through the use of their visual and auditory senses has emotionally linked this threat with John Kerry’s name. Their brain will then direct them to avoid Kerry in any way possible. The only action in their control is to vote against him. That is exactly the objective of John Kerry’s opponent.
Cognitive Psychology takes these subjects a step farther. While not discounting the biological effects and physical responses of an individual that can come from external stimuli, this discipline looks at the influences within the unconscious mind. Jean Kilbourne, Media Critic and creator of the documentary Killing Us Softly, which is about the negative effects of ads on women’s issues, says, “I think its true when (people) say they tune advertising out, that most people don’t pay conscious attention to advertising. The mistake is that they believe they aren’t influenced by advertisements. In fact people are extremely influenced when they are most zoned out.” Today’s ad writers are becoming more and more sophisticated, as can be seen in the following negative ad approved by John McCain. This ad, directed towards Barack Obama during the 2008 campaign is called “Special” and it uses what is described by Thom Hartmann as a “learning trance.”
This style of commercial relies heavily on many of the elements that work well in creating a type of trance most people voluntarily put themselves into, that of the “movie trance.” In a movie theater the audience turns themselves completely over to the multimedia experience. Each of their major sensory receptors, visual, auditory and kinesthetic are stimulated, tapping into the main ways people learn new information. Using certain techniques, an audience’s complete attention can be captured and maintained, increasing the likelihood that the intended message will be received. This is the basic definition of a trance. The most effective step to accomplish a trance on an audience is to tell a story. “Build into the story visual and auditory metaphors and elements, each designed to evoke emotional responses. Embed into the most emotional parts of the stories the information you want remembered.” The pacing of the images and the story are vital, you want to have “viewers move to your beat, thus amplifying the learning trance” (Hartmann 106).
The creators of McCain’s ad use this persuasion method effectively. The ad tells the story of Obama’s quick rise to popularity, then shifts to crises that are plaguing America and goes on to say “Barack Obama lacks the experience America needs and it shows.” The ad cites an example of a mistake he would make and then repeats the adage that he isn’t ready to lead just yet. This tells us that being a good speech giver does not replace the skills of good leadership through tough times. It even ends with the words “The fact is Barack Obama is not ready… yet.” This leaves the story open-ended, implying that perhaps in the future he will be ready, but what America needs now is someone who already has the experience.
Visually, the ad starts off with images of Barack in front of large crowds, which change in a rapid succession, transitioned by white flashes of light and the sound of a camera flash. This draws the viewer’s eye to the screen and keeps it riveted. One emotional response could even result in the viewer feeling assaulted by the paparazzi themselves and cause them to want to shy away from the onslaught. Even though the images may seem positive, they are now attached to a negative emotion. Then the scene slows down and focuses on a still picture of Obama looking angry, which almost resembles a mug shot. But the ad goes on to alternate between the quick flashing images, this time of closed businesses, soldiers, sad-looking low-income citizens, foreclosed houses, and gas pumps, and paused still images of Barack. In the final shot of him, Barack looks to be on the verge of tears, sad and confused. This is enhanced by the words, “not ready” that materialize on the screen (Stanford). Repeatedly changing the images and the pacing, interspersed with written words that appear and disappear off the screen and then under it all playing a slow, mellow music along with a narrators voice that is quiet, steady and concerned, the makers of the ad force the viewer to concentrate deeply in order to focus their attention. This can create confusion, which “might be just the point of the ad – to suggest that the subject is just as confused as the ad is confusing” (Hartmann 106). By monopolizing the senses it causes the viewer to hyper-focus on the message, driving it deeper into their minds and without knowing it, they have learned to lose confidence in Obama.
Each of these ads attempts to stimulate the viewers’ senses in order to invoke emotions. The hopes are that this will, in turn, affect the audience’s behaviors. Unfortunately, the news media is a big driving force behind negative campaigns further permeation into our society. Politicians know that repetition plays a key factor in something being remembered. This means that when negative ads are given attention by the mass media, even if they are saying the ads are deceptive, the very repetition of the ads message gives them strength and memorablity. This is why politicians focus so much of their language into phrases that can be most easily used as sound bites. They recognize that the media are looking for excerpts to be quoted so candidates tailor their messages into ready-made clips to ensure a form of free advertising. And because “journalists relish the battle and revel in the attacks” (Geer), this means that politicians’ snappy retorts are repeated and debated endlessly. This is an encouragement for candidates to use negative ads that will spark debate because controversy is a powerful tool for publicity. And free publicity is the most effective way to reach the most people. As a result an interdependence has been formed between the media, advertisers and science.
The fact is that while Scientists are studying Advertisements, the creators of ads are studying modern science. They want to use the latest information on human biology, individual’s psyche, and peer influence on spending habits to increase their consumerism and thus, their profit margin. The overarching data suggests that TV advertisements affect people on every level possible. What should someone do with this knowledge? Perhaps a quote in the film The Ad and the Ego by Umberto Eco sums it up nicely, “A democratic civilization will save itself only if it makes the language of the image into a stimulus for critical reflection – not an invitation for hypnosis.” Being aware of the techniques used by advertisers helps consumers make more informed decisions at the store and at the polls. A politicians’ goal is for voters to recognize and select his or her name on the ballot, some might believe, by any means necessary. Because negative campaign ads can influence unconscious thoughts towards a deliberate action, being aware of the methods used by the ads helps the audience better discern the intended message. This can help citizens avoid being manipulated. With any luck voters will seek additional information so they can make informed decisions that they believe will contribute to a more positive future.

Cited Sources
- Ben-Ari, Moti. Just a Theory. New York: Prometheus Books, 2005
- Bush, George W. “Wolves” Stanford University 2004
- Clark, Taylor. “The 8 ½ Laws of Rumor Spread.” Psychology Today Dec. 2008: 80-86
- Eagleman, David. “10 Unsolved Mysteries of the Brain.” Discover Aug. 2007: 54+
- Geer, John G. “Those Negative Ads Are a Positive Thing.” The Washington Post 12 Oct 2008: B1.
- Hartmann, Thom. Cracking The Code. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2007.
- Hecker, S. “Music for advertising effect.” Psychology & Marketing 1984: 1, 3-8.
- Huffman, Karen. Psychology in Action. 8th ed. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2007
- McCain, John Campaign Advertisement “Special” Stanford University 28 Oct. 2008
- Morton, J. L. Color Matters. 2005
- Obama, Barack. Campaign Advertisement “Low Road” Stanford University 30 July 2008
- Rohall, David, Melissa Milkie, and Jeffrey Lucas. Social Psychology. New York: Pearson, 2007.
- The Ad and The Ego. Dir. Harold Boihem. 1997
- “The Audience Wants to Know.” The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. NBC 4. 24 Oct. 2008
- Verderber, Rudolph and Kathleen Verderber. Communicate! United States: Thompson Wadsworth, 2008
- West, Paul. “Personal Attacks Lead in to Debate.” The Sun 7 Oct 2008: A13
Browne, Jaime. The Five Sexes and the Five Sexes Revisited. SO108 (top)
In the articles The Five Sexes and The Five Sexes Revisited, Anne Fausto-Sterling is challenging the long held idea of the two-sex system and the heteronormativity of that construct. She says, “it should be noted that success in gender assignment surgery has traditionally been defined as living in that gender as heterosexual” (Fausto-Sterling 22). The author proposes the five-sex system where sex is viewed as a continuum as opposed to a rigid two-sex system (Fausto-Sterling 21). She does this by showing that the arguments and assumptions made by the medical community and other members of society are faulty.
In an effort to emphasize her disagreement with the established sex discourse, she confronts the legal and state reinforcement of the parallels of man and woman because it serves their interests. The legality of the two sex system is important because it serves to inform things like draft registration and marriage decrees (Fausto-Sterling 20-21). She disagrees with their essentialist argument that the two sexes are the only ones considered natural (Fausto-Sterling 21). Sterling uses the constructs of true hermaphrodites, male pseudohermaphrodites, and female pseudohermaphrodites to expand the discussion of sex categories and their natural progression (21). According to Sterling, “a person’s wish to conceal his or her original sex cannot outweigh the public interest in protection against fraud” (23). This evidence illustrates the point that the medical community’s distinction that intersexuals are not natural is not based on scientific principles but more on the desire to meet societal expectations.
Sterling also uses her disagreement with the proposal that intersex children and those with some gender ambiguity are not normal to build her argument against the two-sex system. She takes support for her distinction that gender ambiguity is normal from the study by John Money that stated, “intersexuals may constitute as many as 4 percent of births” (Fausto-Sterling 21). Although this evidence was somewhat disputed as being too widespread a number, she answers her critics and strengthens her argument by conducting research that yielded the result “for every 1000 children born, seventeen are intersexual in some form” (Fausto-Sterling 20). Anne Fausto-Sterling also cites Plato’s discussion of the three sexes to question the medical community’s proposal of two sexes (23). Plato’s assertion is important because it gives a historical timeline that illustrates disagreement with the rigidity of the man/woman construct by one of the world’s first intellectuals (Fausto-Sterling 23).
Doctors and other scientists have determined that gender ambiguity is not normal by saying that they fall somewhere between the chromosomal determination of male as being XY and a woman as being XX (Fausto-Sterling 19-20). Fausto-Sterling turns that argument on its head saying, “chromosomes, hormones, the internal sex structures, the gonads and the external genitalia all vary more than people realize” (20). This information is quite convincing because it shows that even people considered normal chromosomally, have some variation in their makeup that lends itself to some women having facial hair or deep voices (Fausto-Sterling 20).
In addition, the author confronts the reasoning of the medical community for gender assignment surgery. They have long asserted a correlation between being not having assignment surgery and emotional distress (Fausto-Sterling 23). Physicians Dewhurst and Gordon say, “ it is a tragic event which immediately conjures up visions of a hopeless psychological misfit doomed to live always as a sexual freak in loneliness and frustration” (Fausto-Sterling 23). Sterling identifies the cases from the years 1930 to 1960 of intersex children who did not suffer emotional distress because of lack of surgery (Fausto-Sterling 24). She says, “there is not a psychotic or a suicide in the lot” (Fausto-Sterling 24). Sterling further argues that the gender assignment surgery rather than not correcting ambiguous genitals is what causes the psychological problems that the doctors described (23). As a convincing piece of evidence, she looks to the first hand experience of Cheryl Chase to describe the emotional perils of having the surgery. Chase states that “many “graduates” of medical intersex corrective programs are chronically depressed” (The Sciences 3). This is in direct contention with reasoning of the medical community. Fausto-Sterling further cements her argument against criticisms by John Money by proving that a patient, John Colopiano, who Money cited as being a surgery success, had actually rejected the sex to which he was assigned (20-21).
The author also argues that a two-sex system serves to enforce a structure of power and differential treatment based on sex. As a result, intersex children or those with ambiguous genitals disrupt the tradition of raising children as male or female (Fausto-Sterling 24). Suzanne J. Kessler states, “in the everyday world, gender attributions are made without access to genital inspection…what has primacy in everyday life is the gender that is performed, regardless of the flesh’s configuration under the clothes” (Fausto-Sterling 22). In a society where there is power system that ranks males over females, true hermaphrodites would make it difficult to assign that power (Fausto-Sterling 22).
Both of the articles were very well written and very important to the discussion of intersexuals and gender reassignment surgery. If I had written these articles, I would have attempted to include more first hand experiences from people of the intersex community. Their personal testimony would help to bring the issue from a medical perspective to a human level. I would have also included more empirical evidence from scientific studies that support my arguments. Having said that, the time in which these article were written must be taken into consideration. At that time, many people of the intersex community were afraid to question or step forward and tell their stories. This would have made access to first hand information on their lives very difficult to acquire. Overall, Anne Fausto-Sterling sought to challenge the reigning two-sex system as the standard of normal and also proposed the five sexes as being on a continuum.

Cited Sources
- Fausto-Sterling, Anne. "The Five Sexes." Alpert Medical School. 1993. 01 Mar. 2009 .
- Fausto-Sterling, Anne. "The Five Sexes Revisited." Alpert Medical School. 2000. 01 Mar. 2009 .
Cabrejas, Jessica . No Title. PY206 (top)
Jose and Maria met each other when Maria was working at a hotel gift shop. Jose was eight years older than Maria, but the two hit off and within 6 months were married. Jose felt that Maria possessed hard to find traditional values and was a very beautiful woman. Maria felt Jose was a very attractive man, intelligent, and hard working. I think this assignment came at a very interesting time because this particular couple is actually about to get divorced. In light of this, it provided me the opportunity to figure out perhaps what went wrong.
Although it is easy to say that at this point the couple shows no real love, I tried to assess what type of love there was in the beginning of the relationship. I believe that in the beginning of the relationship there was perhaps passionate love, which would explain it’s short-lived nature. Passionate love typically occurs early in the relationship and in this relationship, the couple married early. I assume that passionate love was still going on at this point. It seemed that as the passionate love faded, and they were already married, ignorance of each other’s faults and incompatibilities became clearer. I would like to say that companionate love then took over, but unfortunately, it did not. Companionate love entails a “thoughtful appreciation of one’s partner,” and “encompasses a tolerance for another’s shortcomings along with a desire to overcome difficulties and conflicts in a relationship” (Crooks 167). Although this couple did endure conflicts, they were usually outside the relationship. Conflicts within the relationship where often ignored or avoided until they reached a very hostile level. Therefore I would best describe the bulk, and certainly the latter part of the marriage as empty love, an absence of intimacy and passion (Crooks 169). The only thing holding the marriage together was what I would guess to be a commitment to staying together. I think this was strongly culturally related. Both Maria and Jose came from cultures where divorce was unacceptable, even under abusive contexts. Maria’s mother put up with abuse and infidelity, as did Jose’s mother. Therefore I believe both thought that no matter what, divorce was unacceptable, regardless of how poor the relationship was. According to Lee’s style of loving, though it is difficult to categorize, I would say that Jose had a possessive as well as romantic style of love. Maria on the other hand had a pragmatic and agape love style. I believe Maria’s cultural background influenced these love styles. Maria felt that she had to marry someone who was financially well off, or at least had the ambition to go somewhere in life. In return, it seems as though Maria felt that she would have to become selfless, caring, and compassionate.
Although Jose did not reciprocate this selflessness, it was fine so long as his role as a provider (or head of household) was unwavering. I make a distinction between provider and head of household, because it’s interesting to note that Maria worked very hard. Although Jose was seen, or given the title of head of household, Maria worked just as hard if not more. However, surely due to cultural reasons, he was still seen as the head of the household. As for attachment styles, I think it would be safe to say that both had Anxious-Ambivalent styles. According to the textbook, “research indicates that people who form couples commonly have the same style of attachment” (Crooks 178). Sadly the textbook also notes a study of 354 couples where “no pairings comprised people who both had an anxious-ambivalent or an avoidant attachment style,” because “such people would be quite incompatible with each other” (Crooks 178). This makes a lot of sense considering the fact that anxious-ambivalent adults worry that partners do not really love them and thus may leave them, and also are characterized by obsessive sexual attraction and jealousy (Crooks 179). Jealousy was an extremely prevalent issue in the relationship, as was fear of both leaving each other. Furthermore, this attachment style seems to fit well considering the personal characteristics of each. In the textbook it states that Anxious-Ambivalent adults “often have a poor self image,” which they certainly did (Crooks 178). Maria in particular had poor self-image. Another interesting thing the textbook notes about this type of attachment style that rings true for this couple was that, “they try to overcome their ambivalence by making desperate attempts to get close to a partner, often relinquishing much of their independence in the process”(Crooks 178). This was particularly true for Maria and unfortunately was only exacerbated by Jose’s possessive love style. Jose often would isolate Maria from her family and become irrationally jealous at Maria’s attempt to lead a normal social life with her family. Instead of Maria confronting this, Maria simply gave in, and distanced herself from her family as well as any other social life.
Jose and Maria’s relationship satisfaction is extremely poor. It is difficult to even think of anything that contributed to relationship satisfaction. The textbook’s review of research on marital satisfaction reported a few characteristics that lead to successful marriages. Of the five characteristics, Jose and Maria did not fit one. In fact all five characteristics seemed to be the major flaws in their relationship. Both Jose and Maria had parents that did not have happy marriages. Jose and Maria’s parents were still married, but both of their parents suffered from infidelity and as mentioned earlier, Maria’s mother also dealt with physical abuse. It is unclear whether Jose’s mother did as well, but there is strong evidence to suggest she did as well at the very least-emotional abuse. Therefore, clearly neither of the spouse’s parents had happy or necessarily successful marriages. Jose and Maria in no way had similar attitudes, interests, and personality styles. Jose is extremely political, very interested in his country of origin, and is somewhat of an introvert. Maria on the other hand is not interested in politics, doesn’t care much about his country of origin nor her own, and prefers lively social interaction. In fact, before Maria decided to get divorced, she often complained that Jose never wanted to take her out. Maria loves to dance and was hurt when Jose showed no interest in sharing this hobby with her. They hardly ever went on “dates” or spent time with each other outside of work and home. Also, they never went on a vacation together, in the 26 years they have been married. These things combined truly affected their marriage. Furthermore, both Maria and Jose are not satisfied with their sexual sharing. Maria overall is not satisfied with the sex and never feels pleased, whereas Jose is satisfied with the sex but not the frequency. Clearly, Jose does not understand that it is not pleasurable for Maria, which is why she refuses to have sex often. Indeed Maria describes sex with Jose as more of a chore than anything else. There seems to be no sexual communication, which only worsens the situation. Maria and Jose have also had many problems in regard to finances. Their income has been somewhat steady and somewhat adequate, however Jose has always been a poor manager of money. This caused another major area of stress and tension in the relationship. Lastly, Maria was pregnant when she married Jose. I am not certain whether this was a leading cause for their marriage, but according to the couple, they engaged in sexual activity shortly before their wedding. Not being pregnant when the couple married is listed as a characteristic that contributes to successful marriages (Crooks 184). Furthermore the text notes another study that delineates another set of characteristics, which Jose and Maria also don’t match (Crooks 178)! There is no supportive communication, nor is there a willingness to talk about difficult issues and concerns. There is not a strong sense of companionship, and sexual expression is lacking. I feel that one of the major areas for building relationship satisfaction (although it is clearly too late) would be working on communication. John Gottman described a variety of constructive communication tactics such as leveling and editing, validating, and volatile dialogue (Crooks 206). At the moment their communication seems to entail only the negative communication tactics such as criticism, contempt, defensiveness, stonewalling, and definitely belligerence. Interestingly enough, Gottman states that “people in a relationship characterized by these negative, harmful exchanges may eventually decide that they would be better off ending the relationship” (Crooks 208). The textbook notes that Gottman’s research supports this conclusion by demonstrating that such relationships have low long-term survival rates (Crooks 208).
Unfortunately, this marriage has been plagued by difficulties. As mentioned earlier, the couple certainly has dealt with issues of jealousy, as well as infidelity. I think it is important to note that issues of jealousy existed well before either person admitted to infidelity. The textbook notes a study of couples in marital therapy and the differences between those in which infidelity was occurring and those in which it was not. The study found that, “couples in which it was occurring had more marital instability, dishonesty, arguments about trust, self-centeredness, and time spent apart” (Crooks 366). This is a perfect description of the marriage before and after the infidelity occurred. From a class discussion, I remember hearing that infidelity did not always lead to poor relationship satisfaction. That in fact, some couples experienced a rise in relationship satisfaction because the infidelity caused the couple to address problems in the relationship. I feel that the issue of infidelity was never truly discussed. As far as I know, and from what the couple states, it never happened again, but it seems as though the reasons for why it happened were never addressed. Therefore, it seems as though both Maria and Jose simply continued to suffer from jealousy and distrust. This jealousy and distrust, among other factors, also eventually led to physical violence. This is no surprise as it even states in the textbook, “jealously is frequently a factor in precipitating violence in marriages and dating relationships” (Crooks 182). This violence only worsened every other aspect of difficulty they faced, and destroyed further possibilities for increased communication.
As mentioned before this couple severely suffers from poor communication strategies. It is hard to identify positive or constructive communication tactics either person demonstrates. Instead it’s very clear that they are more familiar with the destructive communication tactics, particularly belligerence, which is perhaps the worst. Definitely both Jose and Maria frequently use “you” comments, which immediately leads to both becoming even more defensive. Often what makes this situation worse is that communication is opened with a “you” statement, and quickly escalates after this as both become defensive. In the past their communication style would usually go as followed: “you” statements quickly would turn to name-calling and other forms of contempt until eventually a physical argument would erupt. More recently however, as each have lost interest in each other to the point of the relationship being characterized as nonlove, their communication (or argument style) tends to follow a different pattern. “You” statements are still the opening communication style, however instead of contempt following, usually Maria stonewalls until Jose resorts to either contempt or belligerence. In the time that I have known this couple, this has been their primary communication tactics in regard to conflict. Therefore it’s hard for me to think that there could be any significant change. Considering their communication style is so defensive, it’s hard to imagine how they could move forward from that. If one person had a less defensive communication style, they could perhaps lead the relationship in a more positive direction. However since both Maria and Jose use these poor communication tactics, and don’t seem to want to change, I doubt much can be done. Furthermore there seems to be a generally strong relationship dissatisfaction, which doesn’t give them incentive to work at anything. John Guttman’s research seems to support this very reality by stating, “long-term relationship survival rates are low for such couples” (Crooks 208). As mentioned earlier, since the couple is in the midst of divorcing (and from asking both) it seems as though there is no desire or motivation to work on any of the issues they faced. Therefore it is difficult to assess what can be done to improve the relationship. In all honesty, though it is sad for me to say this as someone who is close to them, I think they are simply incompatible, and the relationship cannot really be saved. While neither is willing to work on communication styles and other such aspects this will be their reality.
In the chapter entitled, “Sexuality and the Adult Years,” I found it particularly interesting that “Women were more likely to report that their husband’s problematic behavior led to divorce, whereas men were more likely to say that they did not know what caused the divorce” (Crooks 368). Despite, or perhaps because of, all the extremely dysfunctional communication tactics Jose says that he is unsure of why Maria wants divorce, whereas Maria can clearly outline the causes for their divorce. One might ask, why not make these reasons clear to Jose? But I feel that both lack the communication skills to successfully do this. Maria lacks the ability to calmly describe these reasons, while Jose lacks the calmness and objectivity to hear what Maria is trying to say.
Clearly this relationship is suffering from too many negative aspects to survive and become healthy for both people. Knowing about effective communication styles and other such healthy relationship skills is important, but if two people are incompatible, there is not much that can be done. Therefore I believe it is important to know your partner well, and have realistic expectations, as well as knowing what you want from the relationship.

Cited Sources
- Crooks, Robert, and Karla Baur. Our Sexuality, Paperback Version. Belmont: Wadsworth, 2007.
Wali, Aminah. Child Development: A Service Learning Experience. PY102 (top)
During October 2007, I registered for volunteer work at a division of the Mental Health Association of Montgomery County known as the Families Foremost Center, or the FFC. I selected it as my volunteer site because, as a major in the biological sciences, the description of “promoting mental wellness” appealed to me. Initially, I had vague expectations of interacting with people with psychological disorders, but it was uncertain what kind of organization the Center was or what activities I would be participating in. It wasn’t until my interview that I learned I would primarily be caring for children. As a part-time babysitter for close friends, watching young children was something I both enjoyed and had experience in. So, naturally, I couldn’t wait to start volunteering. During my stay at the Center, which lasted about a month and half, I would learn how to better communicate with children, as well as study how they think, feel, and behave in a social environment.
As they state on their brochure, the Families Foremost Center, located in Silver Spring, Maryland, “is a community-based center that offers support to families and their children.” The FFC serves families who are either pregnant or have a child under 4 years, and some of its main goals include promoting healthy functioning and development within families, helping families to become self-sufficient, and stimulating the development of young children. Parents can attend classes focusing on furthering their education, supporting themselves through employment, or improving their parenting skills.
While parents are in class, which generally lasts for an hour or two, their children are cared for in Center Child Development. This is where I worked. I was immediately comfortable in the room, which is a suite in a business building, because its atmosphere was homey and not tense like a research lab might be. After a few training sessions, I assisted my supervisors in looking after children. There were 6 children that were there regularly, most of who ranged from 2 to 3 years of age. In addition to engaging them in constructive activities, I was instructed to fill out progress notes on the children. By writing these reports, we were able to keep track of their cognitive, socioemotional, linguistic, and motor development. This required that I observe each child carefully, noticing how they tend to behave and respond to others. However, I saw them as children, not as subjects, and hopefully managed to maintain a nurturing environment. I also observed my experienced supervisors, paying close attention to the way they dealt with the children. They let the children explore and be creative with the resources that were available to them, and promoted cooperative and productive play by making it clear which sorts of behavior were unacceptable. By adopting their methods, I learned how to communicate more effectively with the kids, all the while gaining a greater understanding of their psychological progression.
A major aspect of a child’s psychology is their cognitive development, which includes how they learn about people and objects in their environment. In truth, noting the intellectual abilities of the toddlers at the FFC was the most difficult for me. This is probably because the concept of “cognition” actually encompasses a vast array of thought processes, whereas I was required to focus my attention on only certain kinds of actions. For example, if one of the children could repeat and understand instructions, I had to judge whether it would be considered cognitive or language development. I do think that many of my observations, regardless of what I labeled them as, could be placed under multiple areas of progression. For the cognitive component, I focused on the children’s interpretations of nonliving objects and their understanding of core ideas, such as colors.
My experiences tell me that 2-year-old children are aware and are becoming aware of the role of certain objects in their everyday lives. When told to wash his hands at the sink, one of the children I looked after realized that the sink was too high up and gestured to a stepping stool. Though he couldn’t actively retrieve the stool himself, he knew that it would allow him to reach the sink. Also, by experimentation, the toddler could understand how the toy instruments were operated. One thing all the 2-year-olds could comprehend was the representation of things that were not actually present. The children could pretend to drink out of empty cups and eat plastic food. One child, after having a pretend drink, would even smack his lips and exhale as if he was deeply satisfied. Along with the 3-year-olds, they could also simulate conversations with plastic telephones. Toy animals, which are nonliving depictions of living things, were often played with. While playing, they would imitate galloping and the sounds of the animals. Collectively, these behaviors are agreed upon as developmentally normal. As research shows (Fackler, 2007), this ability to imagine and connect events generally emerges in children at this age.
Even so, not all of the children functioned at exactly the same level. In one situation, two 2-year-olds were playing a game that involved putting small toys into a hole at the top of a larger, basketball hoop-shaped toy. Once inserted, the small toys went down a spiral tube and emerged again at the base of the toy. Every time he put in a toy, one child would peer down the tube and reacted with surprise when he saw the toy at the bottom. The other child, though he was slightly younger, quickly realized the process and would put his hand at the base before the smaller toy had even come all the way down.
Since the 3-year-old children at the FFC operated, expectedly enough, at a higher level of cognition, I concentrated on different aspects when analyzing their intellectual capabilities. One of the goals of my supervisors and I was getting them to learn their colors. We made sure to point out the colors of toys they were playing with, or of pictures in books. While the children knew the names of the colors, they could not always identify a color with the correct name. What they could do was recognize when two objects were the same color. For example, one of the children would sometimes point out that a toy was the same color as a shape on the rug. However, when asked which color it was, he would not usually respond with the right answer. In another case, I was reading a book to a child while simultaneously identifying colors. He repeated after me when I said that the Winnie the Pooh character in the book was the color yellow. I also went through the colors of the pictures of the honey pots. When I pointed to the yellow honey pot and asked him what color it was, instead of stating the name of the color he replied “Winnie Pooh.”
This development of knowledge about colors corresponds with studies and reports by several researchers. These studies indicate that though children will recognize names of colors, when asked what the color of an object is, they will often provide randomly chosen answers that are unrelated to the property at hand (Backscheider & Shatz, 1993; Barlett, 1978; Cruse, 1977; Istomina, 1963; Landau & Gleitman, 1985; Sandhofer & Smith, 1999, as cited in Sandhofer & Smith, 2001). In conclusion about this learning process, children tend to learn the words themselves before being able to correctly associate the words with the definitive properties, which in this case is the certain appearance of an object (Sandhofer & Smith, 2001).
During early childhood, children show rapid growth in their gross and fine motor abilities. Gross motor requires the use of large muscles for actions like running and hopping, whereas fine motor skills involve using the fingers to grasp small objects or eat with a utensil. On average, 2-year-old children are able to jump and run, kick a ball, and are beginning to draw with crayons. By 3 years of age, a child can build a high block tower and try to solve simple jigsaw puzzles. At this stage, even if they recognize the correct spot for a puzzle piece, they do not always rotate it to fit and often try to force the piece in (Santrock, 2007). Though there were individual variations, of course, these generalizations accurately apply to the children that I observed.
The 2-year-old children that I looked after were all very active. Most of them ran much more often than they walked, and did not always listen when told to slow down. They could all throw and kick balls, and roll them across the floor. We, my supervisors and I, aimed to further motor development by playing music often. The kids enjoyed the toy instruments, and played them whenever the music was turned on. Though they all jumped around to music, there was really only one child that could perform actions akin to choreographed dancing. The gross motor abilities of the 3-year-olds appeared to be very similar. The difference between the two ages was largely present in their fine motor skills. The younger children knew how to grasp and draw with crayons, but were not as coordinated in their movements. Because they couldn’t pick up the crayons as easily, they had a tendency to hold onto only one crayon while they drew. In contrast, the older toddlers had little trouble picking up crayons and used a wide variety of colors. Unlike the younger children, they were able to draw coherent shapes on the paper. On the finished drawings of the 3-year-olds, circles and shapes could be clearly identified by both me and them. Also, by this age, the children had developed a more acute sense of touch. A book I read to a child had places on the page that could be lifted to uncover hidden pictures. The child was able to run his fingers along the surface of the page and find the flap areas of the book. I thought that this was impressive because the flaps were difficult to see, meaning that the child was relying almost completely on sensation to find them.
Another significant element of child development is the way children gain understanding of spoken language, listen to it, and use it to communicate with others. Because most of the children spoke mainly in Spanish, and I cannot, it was necessary to consult with my supervisors when trying to understand what was being said. Even when I couldn’t fully understand the children, I was still able to interpret meanings of words due to the context of the situation. Language development, I learned, is a crucial aspect of child growth. Not only does it play a big role in how children communicate, but it also determines how well others can communicate with them.
Although there was somewhat of a language barrier between the children and me, they could understand English. Most of the children would respond to and seemed to understand most of the things I would say, like orders to stop running or to play nicely. The younger children generally spoke in simple, one- or two-word sentences, and were able to communicate effectively. One of the children often said the Spanish word for “water” when he received juice at snack time. He would also say “thirsty” as a way of asking for his bottle. The other 2-year-olds also used short sentences, but more so to name objects, like a “horse” or “baby.” Sometimes, they would also mimic phrases that were said by me and the other adults, such as “How are you?” or “Come on.”
It was in the language area of child development where I noticed the most significant difference between children 2 years of age and those that were 3 years of age. In contrast to the simple speech of the younger children, the 3-year-olds were using elaborate sentences often containing more than five words. Unlike the 2-year-olds, one child would repeat not only the sounds of instructions from the adults, but he would genuinely understand the instructions and enforce them. If we told them to stop running and walk, he might say “No, guys, let’s slow down.” Because he correctly paraphrased the command instead of mimicking it directly, it was clear that he could comprehend it. Another child was more talkative and frequently used even more elaborate sentences. On the other hand, he did not possess as superb listening skills. He had also said things like “We’re gonna kick butt!” or “I’m gonna kill you guys,” without any display of violent attempt. This led me to believe that he did not truly comprehend the meaning of these phrases and that he was most likely repeating them from another source.
It has been observed (Bloom, 1998, as cited Santrock, 2007) that the transition from the use of simple sentences to more complex sentences and ideas occurs rather abruptly and begins in children at 2 to 3 years of age. This trend was present in my own observations, as evidenced by the obvious differences in speech ability among the children. The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (2007) also describes developmental milestones of children at this age, many of which the children I looked after had successfully reached. The 2-year-old children were able to respond to requests and name most objects. As noted earlier, they could form two-word sentences as well, though one-word sentences were still primarily used. The older children met the expectations of being able to speak clearly and be understood by most people.
The last developmental component I’d like to discuss is socioemotional progression. Ultimately, I found this aspect of the children’s behavior to be the most observable. Children actively interact with all parts of their surroundings, including peers, adults, and nonliving items. Therefore, it wasn’t difficult to see what environmental factors had an influence on their actions. During social development, children learn to play with each other in gradual stages, from playing alone to playing without sharing to playing organized games. Emotionally, it is important for them to be proud of their individual accomplishments (Jindrich, 1998). In truth, I did not find any real trends in social interactions among the different ages. It seemed to me that the children naturally preferred playing others closet to their age, but other than that the way each child communicated with others varied considerably
At the Center, I immediately discovered that the kids enjoyed playing with creative toys like blocks. However, the way that each child interacted with the others while playing was very different. One 2-year-old, instead of trying to construct something, kept picking up blocks only to give them to the other kids. He gave blocks to me as well, saying “more” in Spanish for each block he gave. Sometimes, a 3-year-old child would build energetically and say what he was making with enthusiasm. Other times he would play quietly to himself, pausing only occasionally to announce what he was making. Another child this age alternated between generous and selfish behavior. Though he was focused on what he was making, he would frequently hand blocks someone else saying “Do you want this one?” If he needed another block, he might ask “Can I have this one?” Contrastingly, he would often refuse to share and snatched blocks away from the children, even if he had already accumulated a pile of blocks in front of him.
I was taught to promote socioemotional development through group play and positive reinforcement. During play, the caretakers, including me, aimed to establish a sense of belonging for everyone. At the beginning of a task, all the kids were always called over to participate. The children were notified of ill-favored behavior and encouraged to interact nicely with each other, and were congratulated when they did so. A sense of accomplishment was also positively reinforced by praise. I paid attention to each child’s individual projects, be they block structures or drawings, and displayed excitement when they proudly showed off their creation. Using this interaction, it seems that desirable results were produced during my time with the kids. Nearing the end of my volunteer work, one of the older children was, or at least appeared to be, snatching blocks less and sharing more frequently.
One of the most fascinating features about my whole experience was the discoveries I made about the personalities of children. Within the first two weeks, I had already begun to make assumptions about each child’s individual behavior. The children were so young, but they had already developed little quirks in their character that made them distinguishable. One of the kids, for example, made habit of making sure everything got put away. Though he was only 2 years of age, he noticed when a toy was out of place and cleaned up after himself more often than some of the older children. Another child, also 2, had a very playful disposition. He was energetic and would run from toy to toy, but he never occupied himself with one item for every long. After spending time with the children for about 6 weeks, I now realize that unique characteristics like these belong to every child. This realization has given me brand new insight about the diversity of children and influences on early development.
Although I have been babysitting for several years, I had never put much thought into the physical and psychological development of children. That changed drastically once I began volunteer work at the Families Foremost Center. Just by observation, I started to become more aware of how children reasoned with a given task, and of their daily interactions with both adults and their peers. I gained a better idea of their physical progression by looking at the difference in motor skills between children that were only about a year apart in age. The people that allowed me to do this were my supervisors at the Center, whom I have to thank for teaching me how to effectively communicate with children. For the future, I have my sights set on internships that will advance my knowledge in the biological sciences. However, I do plan to pay the Families Foremost Center another visit and thank them for a life-changing experience.

Cited Sources
- American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2007. How does your child hear and talk? Retrieved December 19, 2007 from http://www.asha.org/public/speech/development/23.htm, http://www.asha.org/public/speech/development/34.htm.
- Fackler, A. (2007). Cognitive development between 12 and 24 months of age. Retrieved December 18, 2007 from http://www.revolutionhealth.com/healthy- living/parenting/toddler/development-milestones/cognitive-development .
- Jindrich, S. (1998). How do children develop? Retrieved December 18, 2007 from http://www.gdrc.org/kmgmt/learning/child-learn.htm .
- Sandhofer, C. M. & Smith, L. B. (2001). Why children learn color and size words so differently: Evidence from adult’s learning of artificial terms. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 130 (4), 600-601. Retrieved December 19, 2007 from http://www.indiana.edu/~cogdev/labwork/sandhofer&smith.pdf .
- Santrock, J. W. (2007). Children. New York: McGraw Hill.

Student Writings in the Disciplines

Student Writing Samples