SIX QUESTIONS (SIX CENTRAL ISSUES THAT SEPARATE VARIOUS SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT):

Agent: Who primarily decides in moral matters—the community or the individual?

Standard: What is the universal standard of right action?

Motive: Why should I follow the rules?

Freedom: What is freedom?

Good life: What is the purpose, meaning, or goal of life?

Virtues: What are the qualities of a good person?

AQUINAS: MODERATE COMMUNITARIAN

Agent The human community

The constitutional monarchy possesses rights.

Standard Self-realization

Motive                 To attain one’s highest potentials

Freedom The exercise of the capacity to realize the potential given by

heredity, environment, and self-awareness

Good Life A life in which one’s potential is achieved

Virtues Temperance, Courage, Wisdom, Justice, Faith, Hope, Charity

ARISTOTLE: MODERATE COMMUNITARIAN

Agent The human community

The city-state possesses rights

Standard Self-realization

Motive To attain one’s highest potentials

Freedom The exercise of the capacity to achieve the potential given by heredity and environment

Good Life A life of moderation

Virtues Primary

The golden mean:  (the middle column is the virtue,  the other columns  contain the vices)

Self-indulgence Temperance Insensibility

Rashness Courage Timidity/cowardice

Extreme partiality Wisdom (fair-mindedness)     Strict impartiality

AUGUSTINE: STRICT COMMUNITARIAN

Agent The Church, the conscience of the state

Rule by divine right

Standard Will of God

Motive Love of God

Freedom Turning to God (conversion to God)

Good Life A life in union with God

Virtues Primary; temperance, courage, wisdom, justice, faith, hope,

and charity

BAIER: MODERATE COMMUNITARIAN

Agent The individual who feels compassion with others

Standard An action that reflects care and sympathy for others

Motive To establish caring relationships with others

Freedom Realizing oneself through relationships

Good Life A life in relationship with others

Virtues                 Primary: trust, sympathy

BEAUVOIR: EXISTENTIALIST

Agent The individual conscious of death

Standard Authentic human existence

Motive                 One has created the rules in each situation.

Freedom                 The human being

Good Life An authentic life

Virtues Secondary: authenticity is the only virtue

BENTHAM: ACT UTILITARIAN

Agent The pleasure-seeking individual who sympathizes with other sentient beings

Standard The greatest pleasure of the greatest number

Motive                 Out of sympathy for sentient beings

Freedom The exercise of the capacity to satisfy one’s needs and desires

Good Life A life in which the greatest number attain pleasure

Virtues Secondary: altruism, benevolence

EPICURUS: SUBJECTIVE RELATIVIST

Agent The pleasure-seeking individual

Standard Long-lasting pleasure

Motive To attain long-term satisfaction

Freedom Our desires are fixed; we can choose only how to fulfill them.

Good Life A life in which desires are satisfied

Virtues All virtues are instrumental, ultimately a form of prudence

EPICTETUS: MODERATE COMMUNITARIAN

Agent The rational individual in a community of rational individuals

Standard The rational, detached action

Motive To attain one’s true nature as a rational being

Freedom Everything is predetermined; persons are free only to a limited extent

Good Life A life of resignation to one’s fate

Virtues Primary: ataxia or indifference to one’s fate, as an actor is

Indifferent; truthfulness, loyalty, performance of duty

HOBBES: SUBJECTIVE RELATIVIST
Agent the self-interested individual

Standard short-term self-interest

Motive self-interest

Freedom                 the satisfaction of one’s desires

Good Life a life in which one’s desires are satisfied

Virtues secondary: cunning, force, fraud

HOBBES: CULTURAL RELATIVIST
Agent the Leviathan

Standard long-term (enlightened) self-interest

Motive                 self-interest

Freedom                 a secure state

Good Life a life in which one’s survival is protected

Virtues secondary: obedience to the laws of the Leviathan

HUME: COMMUNAL RELATIVIST

Agent the individual as a member of a particular society

Standard varies from community to community

Motive                 to express sympathy for the self-interest of others

Freedom                 the satisfaction of one’s preferences and desires

Good Life varies from community to community

Virtues primary: generosity, liberality, zeal, and gratitude

KANT: AUTONOMY CONTRACTARIAN

Agent The rule-creating individual

Standard The categorical imperative or generalizable rule

Motive                 If one freely chooses the rules, he or she is bound by the rules.

Freedom The exercise of the capacity to choose the rules by which humans govern themselves

Good Life A life in accord with the rules chosen by rational humans

Virtues Secondary: good will, autonomy

M. L. KING: MODERATE COMMUNITARIAN

Agent The conscientious individual

Standard The just action

Motive                 To attain justice

Freedom Liberation from oppression

Good Life A life in which one is released from oppression

Virtues Primary: Justice, autonomy

LOCKE AND JEFFERSON: LIBERTARIANS

Agent the enlightened individual

Standard consent of the governed

Motive                 self-interest

Freedom                 democratic rule

Good Life a life with minimal governmental constraints

Virtues                Secondary: industriousness; independence

MACINTYRE: MODERATE COMMUNITARIAN

Agent The pursuer of internal goods

Standard Self-realization

Motive To manage conflict (conflict is basic): “The purpose of the quest is to discover the purpose of the quest.”

Freedom                 The exercise of the capacity given by heredity and environment

Good Life A life of pursuit of goods internal to practices, communal goods

Virtues Primary: qualities that enable one to pursue goods internal to a practice

MAIMONIDES: MODERATE COMMUNITARIAN

Agent the human community

Standard rational revealed truths

Motive                 long-term self-interest

Freedom                 governance by freely chosen rules

Good Life life in accordance with reasonable rules

Virtues practical wisdom; fair-mindedness

MARX: EXTREME UTILITARIAN

Agent The benevolent participant in actions that seek the equal treatment for all humans

Standard The equal distribution of the social goods

Motive Sympathy for humanity

Freedom The exercise of the capacity to satisfy basic needs

Good Life A life in which the wealth and power in human society are equally distributed

Virtues Secondary: altruism, benevolence

MILL AND TAYLOR: RULE UTILITARIANS

Agent The impartial benevolent spectator

Standard The greatest happiness of the greatest number

Motive Sympathy for humanity

Freedom                 The exercise of the capacity to satisfy one’s needs and desires

Good Life A life in which the greatest number attain happiness

Virtues Secondary: altruism, benevolence

MUSSOLINI: STRICT COMMUNITARIAN

Agent The nation-state; the government as conscience of the state;

The state is absolute, the individual relative.

Standard Survival of the fittest, both individual and collective

Motive                 Spiritual development: struggle against death

Freedom                 The state is free when it directs the economic, moral, and spiritual life of the people. Only then are the people themselves free.

Good Life Rule by the few

Virtues Courage; strength; desire to survive

Rejects materialism.

Rejects socialist and democratic forms of government. Socialist governments seek a permanent state of peace, but conflict is basic. Democratic governments are a pretense of power by the people: the hidden hand in the market-place and hidden wielders of power actually do the governing.

PLATO: STRICT COMMUNITARIAN

Agent The city-state

Standard The form of the good

Motive Love of the community

Freedom Liberation from slavery

Good life Acceptance of one’s assigned role

Virtues Temperance, Courage, Wisdom, Justice

RAWLS: AUTONOMY CONTRACTARIAN

Agent The impartial rational spectator

Standard Basic principles chosen by unanimous consent from behind a veil of ignorance

Motive If one freely chooses the basic principles, he or she is bound by the principles

Freedom The exercise of the capacity to choose the basic principles by which humans govern themselves

Good Life An autonomous life

Virtues Secondary: fidelity, trust, integrity, truthfulness, and justice

RUDDICK: MODERATE COMMUNITARIAN

Agent The caring individual who is connected to others

Standard Care for particular others

Motive The choice of life

Freedom                 Remaining in a “holding tension”

Good Life A life in relationship with others

Virtues Primary: humility, clear-sighted cheerfulness

STRAUSS: LIBERTARIAN (esoteric version)

Agent the wise philosopher who teaches his generation

Standard consent of the governing class; dominance of the fittest

Motive fear of violent death

Freedom                 creation of the rules and life’s meaning

Good Life contemplation, leisure, learning

Virtues foresight, wisdom

STRAUSS: LIBERTARIAN (exoteric version)

Agent God or the state

Standard revealed (divine) or positive (civil) law

Motive fear of violent death

Freedom conformity to the leader’s will

Good Life stable and peaceful life

Virtues courage, temperance, obedience and trust in leaders