PRELIMINARY QUESTIONS: JAINISM

 

Page numbers in bold type refer to Fisher, Living Religions, 8th edition. The page numbers in numbers in italics refer to the 7th edition. Those in regular type to the 6th edition and the page numbers in parentheses refer to the 5th edition of Fisher.

The letter a following a page number indicates the quote is from the upper third of the page, the letter b means it is from the middle portion of the page, and the letter c from the bottom third of the page. I will sometimes cite lines: 49.11-15, for example, means lines 11 through 15 on page 49. (I assume 30 lines per page, and my references to line numbers are generally estimates.)


ETHICAL

1. What are the basic myths or origin stories (cosmogony) associated with the religion?

            122a 121.5-121.9 116.29-117.4 (129.1-6): long cycles; no beginning and no end of the world.

            122a 121.5 “In Jain cosmology, the universe is without beginning or end.” 123.10-11 (135.20) “Jains believe that the universe is without beginning and that it has no creator or destroyer.”

2. What virtues does the religion advocate? 

            (See Institutional Question 27 below)

3. Does the religion prescribe a way to enlightenment or salvation? If so, what does it call this state?

             125a 124.9 The state of highest perfection in Jainism, known as kevala, in which “the liberated being has ‘boundless vision, infinite righteousness, strength, perfect bliss, existence without form, and a body that is neither light nor heavy.’”  123.23 (136.12) kevala is “the supremely perfect state in Jainism,” a state of liberation. 

129c 128.19-30 Twelve major vows are taken by Jain lay people. The first five are the moswt important: nonviolence, truthfulness, not taking anything that has not been given, renouncing any sexual activity outside of marriage, and limiting one’s possessions. 123.26-30 (136.15) and six duties of lay householders 

4. Does the religion hold that everyone or only some people can attain enlightenment or salvation? 
            122a 121.1  116.25 Jains come from all castes.

123c 122.24  534  118.16  510 A Jina has attained enlightenment. In Jainism, a Jina is “one who has realized the highest, omniscient aspect of his or her being and is therefore perfect.”

 123.19-22 (136.8-11) gunasthana—for householder, fourteen stages of ascent of the soul

5. Does the religion hold that clerics belong to a higher moral or spiritual order than lay people? 

            See Question 4 above (Jina) and Political Question 11 below.

            128b 127.20 122.3 (134.15) “no feeling of greater or lesser, etc.”

128c 127.23-24 122.10 (134.20)  “must learn to…feel no pride at being more spiritually advanced than others.”

6. What impact has the religion had on the way of life of its followers? On the surrounding culture?        

POLITICAL: 

7. What are the major political divisions of the religion? (In Christianity, for example, major divisions would be Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglicanism and Protestantism.)

122c 121.18  532  117.20  509  Digambaras (“a highly ascetic order of Jain monks who wear no clothes”) and

            122b 121.15 117.18-19 (129.20) Digambaras are followers of Bhadrabahu (3rd Century BCE)

122c 121.17 538   117.21  514  Svetambaras (“Jain order of monks who are less ascetic than the Digambaras”)

8. Does the religion have a central authority that determines orthodox beliefs? 

9. Has the religion at any point in its history accepted the status of an official state religion?

10. Does the religion accept a just war or does it advocate non-violence? 

            See Question 27 Institutional—Ahimsa

11. Does the religion accept spiritual leaders--such as ordained clergy, shamans, and the like?

            130b 129.15 125.1-2 There is no great emphasis on priesthood in Jainism, since there can be no divine intervention.

12. Does the religion take a position on class division in society? 

            122a 121.2 116.26 (128.28) Jainism “does not officially acknowledge the caste system.”

13. What is the role of women in the religion? Has the role changed over the years?  

            123a “In Brahmanic Hindu tradition, women were never allowed to be mendicants and marriage was considered obligatory.”

121.23-122.15 117-118 (129.25-30) Digambaras vs. Svetambaras (130.1-10), who accept women as nuns: “no other native religion provides a monastic option for women.”

            122c 121.23-30 118.1-7 Both Digambaras and Svetambaras regard women as subordinate. Digambaras hold that women must be reborn in a man’s body to attain liberation.

14. Does the religion permit a married clergy?  

            128c 127.21 122.5 The monks and nuns are celibate.

15. Has the religion increased or decreased in numbers during the past century?

            132c 131.23 125.12  Today there are six million Jains.

16. Does the religion advocate social engagement or personal salvation? If both, which receives the greater emphasis?

            125a 124.9 123.23 Kevala as liberation is one goal.

            127c 129.13 124.8 Philanthropic or charitable works and, on 126.18 120.29, protection of the environment through the practice of aparigraha is another goal.

            123c 122.26 118.20-24 (131.1-3) The Jain notion of karma is similar in one respect to the same notion in Hinduism: our actions have effects in the world

In another respect, karma in Jainism differs from the notion in Hinduism: Jains regard karma as “dust”—material we accumulate as we act and think. Jains try to avoid accumulating karma.

126b 125.16 120.5 (132.7-8) Jains work on jobs considered harmless to the environment: banking, clerical occupations, education, law and publishing

METAPHYSICAL
 

17. Does the religion accept a belief in a soul, spirit, or the like?

            the soul can save itself by discovering its own perfect nature

123c 122.29-30 123.12 (135.23) “Our lives are…the results of our own deeds; only by our own efforts can we be saved.”

18. Does the religion hold there is one God (monotheism), many gods (polytheism), or no god (nontheism)?

124a 123.5-6 123.15-16 (135.27-28) belief in gods and demons, but the gods are subject to the same ignoble passions as are humans.

124a 123.1-2 123.13-14 (135.22-24): Agrawal quote: no heavenly father

19. What evidence or proof is offered in support of the existence of God?

20. Does the religion hold that God is something to strive for?

123c 122.23 118.18-20 (130.25) We strive to free ourselves from samsara, the wheel of birth and death and life’s ups and downs.

21. Is faith or reason given greater emphasis in the religion?

22. What position does the religion take on the question of belief in an afterlife or immortality--such as heaven, hell, and reincarnation? 

            123c 122.20 118.19 (130.24) The process of the soul saving itself may take many incarnations.

23. Does the religion accept that the ultimate reality is (or could be) female?

Although Jains do not claim knowledge of the ultimate reality, they accept that the 19th Tirthankara (great legendary teachers) was a female.

 

INSTITUTIONAL

24. Does the religion regard a particular locale (land, city, and so forth) as holy or sacred?

            124b 123 124 (137) (box) story of Bahubali. Bharat: “This soil is universal, not yours or mine.”

25. Does the religion have special places or locations for worship?

            132b 131.15 136.23 Pilgrimage sites and Temples

26. What are the religion's major holy days or festivals?

             130 129, 131 http://www.hindustanlink.com/festivals/jain_festival.htm

27. What are the basic doctrines of the religion? 

 537 513 Samsara is “the continual round of birth, death, and rebirth in Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism”

125 124-125 119-120 (131-132) Ahimsa is “non-violence, a central Jain principle”

127 126-127 120-121 (132-133) Aparigraha is “the Jain principle of non-acquisitiveness”

128 127 121-122 (134) Anekantwad is “the Jain principle of relativity or open-mindedness”

127.10-15 121.20-27 Many points of view: blind persons regard an elephant as tree branch, pillar, fan, rope, wall.

28. What are some of the major symbols associated with the religion?

         124(Upper left-hand margin) 125 119 (upper right-hand margin)

29. What are the major texts or sacred documents? 

            Non-Vedic; canon of 45 books among Svetambaras

30. What attitude does the religion advocate toward other religions? Is it exclusivist or universalist? 

            133a 132.4 125.20 (139.21) (in Kumar quote) Everyone who follows Jain principles is a Jain.

31. What is the nature of the service, ceremonies, or worship (format, participation of congregation)? 

32. Who is regarded as the founder of the religion?  

            No founder, but 121-122 120-121 116-117 (128-129) the 24 Tirthankaras (“the great enlightened teachers in Jainism, of whom Mahavira—a contemporary of the Buddha in the 6th century BCE—was the last in the present cosmic cycle”) create religion in times of social disorder at the end of each cosmic cycle.

            124 123 box  (129.8-12) Lord Rishaba, the first Tirthankara

            130b 129.15  124.14 (136.25) not available as helpers but are models for one’s own life.

33. Does the religion actively seek converts through missionary activity?
 

            133a 132.1  125.22 (139.20-23) No. Kumar’s statement: “If somebody is a real symbol of non-violence, love, compassion, peace, harmony, oneness, then he is the perfect Jain. We can’t convert any Jains, but you can convert your habits, your mind.”

            133a 132.8  125.23-24 In very recent times (during the final decades of the 20th century), samans (semi-monks) and samanis (semi-nuns) have begun to travel abroad and spread Jain principles.

EXPERIENTIAL:

34. What is the religion’s position on prayer, meditation, exorcism, chants and dance?

            124.1 (136.15) fasting for days

35. What are some individual practices—such as confession? 

            127 126 (box) 121 (133.15-30) (box) Samayika (a purification ritual) is practiced both by lay people and ascetics.

36. What are the religion’s attitudes toward healing and health—such as laying on of hands, “faith healing,” and the like?  

123.29-124.4 Physical and mental health are maintained by diet and fasting.

(136.9) “Jains attempt to plumb the depths of their negative tendencies in order to free themselves from emotional problems.”

37. What is the place of prophecy and oracles in the religion?

39. What is the religion’s position on sacrifice?

            128a 127.3-7 121.16-20 (133.10-14)  Self-denial helps to preserve the environment.

            133a 132.10 125.23-27 (139.25-30)  “small vows”

40. How does the religion incorporate the “cards down” point of view—from the Rawls Game? Who can turn the cards down? Who or what is represented when the cards are face down? What does it mean in this religion to turn the cards down? When should the cards be turned down? Why should the cards be turned down? How does the religion respond to failure to abide by the rules created with the cards down.

As in other indigenous religions, the least well off are taken into account with the cards down; the least well off includes other animals as well as humans.

 

41. What is the concept or concepts of forgiveness in the religion and what roles does the concept play?

            127a 126 (box) 121 (box) forgiveness is included in the practice of samayika: “I ask forgiveness of all beings/ may all beings forgive me.”